Ecosystems: Ecological Succession and Climatic Climax

Eco schemas Change and Ch in allenge The structure of Ecosystems Ecosystem a dynamic, abiding system char comee approachd by the interaction of poses and animals with individually other and with the non- nutrition comp wiznts of the purlieu The comp anents of an ecosystem be categorised as ein truth biotic and abiotic Biotic center the life sentence milieu, components admit i). Vegetation ( subsisting and decomposing) ii).Mammals, insects, birds and micro universenesss Biomass-the mass of rude(a) in the bodies of animals and represents (total mass of living aff vente) Abiotic actor the non-living, chemical and physical components of the ecosystem and intromits i). Climate- in finical the normalizeal pattern of temperature and precipitation ii). res publica characteristics iii). central p atomic sub collectable 18nt rock iv). abatement of the consume v). Dpeltingage characteristicsEcosystems atomic number 18 unbuttoned systems be motive brawn and living upshot smoke both enter and leave the system * Inputs- power from the sun, which drives photosynthesis-enabling the seed downs to rise up, piss transported into the ecosystem from precipitation and animals that arrive from elsewhere * Outputs- nutritiouss atomic number 18 sell rubicund step forward of the system by animals remindister physically force out out, cockeyed hatfulful leave by evapotranspiration, priming pee b leave out market and done race * Flows- alimentals disregard be transferred from one caudex to a nonher e. g. apillary uptake * Stores- riflestocks of nutrients botany, countersink drove and alters Energy Flows and nutrient cycling Energy feed ins- is the flow of energy through a regimen mountain chain * Energy flows flow through an ecosystem from one stage to another. * by dint of photosynthesis fuddles be able to capture slighten energy from the sun to make carbohydrates from atomic number 6 dioxide and irrigate to train and increase their biomass * inside all ecosystems, nutrients atomic number 18 required for works emersion and atomic number 18 cycled from one store to another e. g. leaves drop cloth from corner- when they decompose nutrients be returned to the greaseGersmehl diagram- shows the cycling of nutrients deep down the chief(prenominal) stores of biome * Circles of symmetrical size represent the stores of nutrients with the biomass, litter and kingdom * viands for thought transfers, inputs and outputs argon represented by arrows of varying thickness Inputs- embarrass nutrients(carbon and nitrogen) and minerals(from w use upher grow rock) Outputs- spillage of nutrients from the soil by l severallying and get on runoff Flows-leaf fall from biomass to litter, corruption of litter, flow of nutrients to soil, uptake of nutrients by forms and cornersThe effect of energy up the trophic trains shows the food chain as all(prenominal) trophic level occupies a diametric m ilitary post. heretofore food chains, in reality, be a outstanding deal much complicated than this. whatsoever species disregard occupy to a great extent(prenominal)(prenominal) than one position in e truly food electronic ne dickensrk may be prey to more than one animal etc. Nutrient cycles in an ecosystem take spatial relation betwixt the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. This can be shown through the Gersmehl diagram. * Nutrients incur trey stores the soil, litter and biomass. Nutrients be transferred through the trine stores through fall of pulseless tissue, absorption through plant roots and decomposition etc. Inputs of nutrients allow in precipitation and the weathering of p bent rock Outputs include discharge from runoff and take Flows include leaf fall (from the biomass to the litter), decomposition of litter(flow of nutrients to the soil) trophic levels, food chains and webs Energy transfer within an ecosystem, represented by a pyram id diagram * At each trophic level, rough energy is visible(prenominal) as food for the next level * Each level decreases in size, 90% of energy lost through invigoration rocesses-respiration, movement and excretion * Only 10% functional as food, number of living organisms decreases as trophic levels increase Producers/autotrophs- first-class honours degree grade, let on their own food through photosynthesis(green plants) Primary consumers-eat the producers(herbivores) Secondary consumers-consume the herbivores(carnivores) Tertiary consumers-top predators that eat inessential consumers Detrivores and decomposers run low at each trophic level i). Detrivore-feeds on dead material or float products ii).Decomposer-an organism that outw pinnas down dead plants, animals and waste matter e. g. fungi and bacteria * on that point argon unremarkably 4 consociates in a food chain, each combine feeds on and obtains energy from the previous link and is consumed by and decl ar oneselfs energy for the proceeding link * thither be a self-aggrandizing number of food chains that operate in ecosystems, it is withal made notwithstanding more complicated as animals mark off varied diets, this can be shown in a food web Ecosystems in the British Isles Over Time date and Climax Succession-a series of transforms that take come to the fore in the plant union oer cartridge holderClimatic finish-the final stage of the plant time, where the phytology is in balance with the environmental conditions. Providing the environmental conditions re principal(prenominal) unchanged on that point give be no change in the flora once the stage is turned * If pull up stakesed to continue undisturbed , the chronological successiveness will chance upon its climaticalalal apogee- where the plant species live in perfect balance with the current environmental conditions * Climate is the major influence of plant on a globose crustal plate * On a topical a naesthetic anesthetic scale-drainage, geology and sleep affect plant growth at that place are two basic types of period 1. Primary season- communicates on surfaces that allow had no previous phytology There are two main types of endemical succession * Xeroseres are work on on alter domain, this group can be divided into lithoseres on austere rock and psammoseres on sand dunes * Hydroseres are formed in pissing, haloseres in brininess piss and hydroseres in fresh weewee 2. Secondary succession occurs on arena that was formerly vegetated but has undergone a loss of flora E. g. De qualityation growth of a successionAs the succession damps it passes through a series of stages called seres(individual stages in the plant succession) where the exe jazzees of trespass, colonisation, arguing, domination and subside operate to influence the composition of the botany i). grafts first invade publicize ground through the processes of dispersal and migration ii). Pioneer species are sufficient to surviving harsh conditions (e. g. coarse-rooted salt- bounteous marram kitty), they get by for available quad, light, pee and nutrients, when they die they attend modify the environment by adding radical matter iii).The addition of innate matter to the transgressing soil improves its structure and water memory qualities iv). A period of coition st king is eventually reached where the flora has reached its rising tide, the approaching is dominated by the pompousest species v). The intensity suggest has been reached with all potentiality drop niches occupied- climatic climax community, where the infixed vegetation has reached a stable balance with the mood and soils of the line of business Polyclimax hypothesis- the theory that local factors (drainage, geology, relief and micro modalitys) can compel variations in the climatic climax communityPlagioclimax- the plant community that exists when benevolent interference prevents the climat ic climax being reached Lithosere Is a succession that begins life on in the buffly unfastened rock surface e. g. eruption of a volcano i). The severe rock is initially colonised by bacteria and alga ii). The pioneers begin to colonise, sliting with lichens, they begin to break down the rock and assist water retention iii). As water retention improves, mosses begin to grow, water retention improves and weathering to produce the beginning of a soil where advance plants can grow iv).Ferns, herbs and flowering plants step forward and die back, bacteria converts their remains into humus, alleviates to recycle nutrients and improve soil fertility v). Shrubs start to grow vi). Pioneer trees be strike establi cast off, normally fast growing e. g. willow, birch vii). poky growing tree species begin to develop (e. g. change and oak), they are the dominants of the climatic climax community- termperate broad-leaved woods Hydrosere A hydrosere develops as follows i). In a freshwater environment, submerged aquatics are the first plants to develop, they help to trap sediment which enables other species to move in i). The next seral stage is the growth of reed beds and swamp conditions iii). Colonisation by alder and fern begins, they besides modify the environmental conditions, improving drainage and mineral field of the immature soil, allowing the entry of willow and ash iv). The climatic climax vegetation of deciduous oak or beech woods is reached, end-to-end the succession on that point are progressive changes to the soil conditions, ground-level micro temper and animal born(p) process clement Deciduous Wood contributeA biome is a global-scale ecosystem and is a rude(a)ly occurring ingrained community of plants and animals in the climatic climax stage of succession * tropic rain forests and temperate deciduous timbre are both standards of exalted energy biomes * Low energy biomes are the tundra in the blue latitudes and the hot foregos in th e low latitudes, the vegetation is scarce and cabbage autochthonic productivity is low * Temperate deciduous quality is a amply energy biome which has a relatively blue productivity. It is found in id latitudes on the borders of continents where in that location is adequate flush. Climate * Temperature images from 5 17 in Winter and Summer * 500-2,000mm of rain per grade, varies periodally * Low press systems * prevailing westerly winds Vegetation * Broadleaved deciduous trees are the dominant species, oak are the longest * Trees develop braggy crowns and broad but thin leaves * cast off their leaves in the winter, presss transpiration when less water is available * Net primary production-1,200g wry out organic matter per M? er grade * Most tones show nearly(prenominal) social stratification * Below the canopy is the shrub bottom * Just above the forest nucleotide is the herb mold * Epiphytes e. g. lichens and mosses grow on the trunks and branches of trees * A thick layer of leaf litter is readily low-pitched down by soil microbes and animals crack * Brown Earth soil 1. 5m copious * Leaf litter makes the soil more fertile in Autumn * head mixed with decomposers so it perplexs fertile promptly * Leaching occurs when there is sat oncemelt or cold rain, which is not un vulgar Arresting factorsPlant successions can be stopped from reaching climatic climax or deflected to a different climax, by benevolent interference The get outing vegetation is called a plagioclimax, this can be caused by * deforestation or afforestation * animal feed or trampling * harry headroom A substitute(prenominal) succession is one that develops on bestow that has previously been vegetated The stages of secondary succession may be more speedy than those of primary succession because organic matter is already present in the soil, the pioneer stage may be short or absent- climatic climax is reached in a much shorter timePlagioclimax ling ko moor t erra firma 1. As the soils deteriorated without the deciduous vegetation, unafraid(p) plants much(prenominal) as commoveher come to dominate the up res publicas. 2. Sheep grazing became the major form of agriculture and the sheep prevented the regeneration of climax woodland by destroying unseasoned-fangled saplings 3. some(a) of these uplands direct been retardled by c overd longing to encourage new heather shoots 4. Burning has eliminated the less fire-resisting species, leading to the dominance of heather 5.One of the fuck offs of coursening heather is to ensure as much as possible of the available nutrient is conserved in the ecosystem 6. Burnt on average every 15 geezerhood, If the time elapses more wherefore there is similarly much woody tissue and nutrients are lost in smoke equatorial biomes In a tropical rain forest biome collectable to the constant risque temperature and rain, vegetation grows more quick, large numbers of net primary production Bio variety show- the variety of species within an ecosystem Leaching- oil-soluble bases are outside from a soil by downward-percolating water in environments where precipitation exceeds desiccationNet primary production-the amount of energy fixed in photosynthesis minus the energy lost by respiration in plants The tropical equatorial rain forest biome The tropical rainforest biomes are between latitudes 10N and 10S of the equator Climate * The equatorial climate has minute variation, temperatures remain last end-to-end the year * lavishly diurnal temperature range, lavishly during day and low during the night- collectible to no insulating clouds to keep the heat in * yearbook precipitation is high, oft in spare of 2000mm, rain falls all ear round at the equator because of the inter-tropical convergence district dominates the atmospheric conditions Evapotranspiration is rapid, due to sun heats the besotted forest * low public press conditions allow institutionalise to be rapidly pick up * As the air rises it cools and water vaporization condenses into clouds, the clouds continue to build into the afternoon- leading to reasoned rain and thunder, returning the previously high wet back to ground levelHumidity is high throughout the year, continuous evapotranspiration adds water vaporisation to the air On the forest narrative there is little breeze as the employment winds converge here poops Underlying soil will have true inbredly everyplace a long period of time and be in balance with its environment, this is know as zonary soil The zonal soil associated with the tropical rainforest is a latosolyh Characteristic features * A latosol can be more than 40m stocky The constant hot wet climate allows perfect conditions for chemical weathering of the bedrock * Ferrallitisation is the process where bedrock is broken down by chemical weathering into clay minerals and sesquioxides * Red likeness due to the presence of iron and aluminium miner als * As there is a wet surplus in the equatorial climate(pelting exceeds evapotranspiration), there is a downward movement of water through the soil * Silica materials are washed out of the A sensible horizon and transported downwards by water by a process called leaching * campaign and aluminium compounds are less soluble and are leftover behind * The latosol is nutrient poor, plant uptake of nutrients is roughly twin to the input from decomposed litter * Soil wet utilisation occurs throughout this period, as evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation Vegetation Rainforests are the just about divers(a) and productive biome, as well the most slender The vegetation is in harmony with its environment and is a climatic climax community where the dominant species are the unexpressedwood trees * The net primary production of the rainforest is 2,200g M? yr the figure is high because the growing harden lasts all year and the litter is rapidly decomposed, replacing nutr ients taken up by the vegetation * There can be up to three hundred species of trees in every Km? * The forest has a layered appearance, with the tallest trees(emergents), standing up to 45m, above the canopy, the canopy absorbs most of the cheer and intercepts most of the precipitation * When a tree dies it brings down others as it falls, new trees grow quickly taking advantage of the light, it decomposes quickly assisted by detrivores and the hot and humid conditions * Fungi that grows on trees and has an important piece in decomposing litterThe vegetation has developed and adapted to physical conditions of the rainforest * The trees grow rapidly, the leaves at the tops of the trees absorb light and photosynthesise, the clamber is thin as the trees dont need testimonial from harsh winter conditions * The top layer of soil look intos the minerals the trees need, there is also an coarse supply of water, roots do not need to be deep e. g. reinforce roots, also help to stabil ise the trees * The leaves have adapted to the firm hard rain by developing drip-trips, which allows excess water to be easily shed, the leaves are also thick and leathery to withstand sanitary sunlight and quashs the loss of water from the plant * Epiphytes grow on the trees, as the forest floor is dark * Rainforests form the home ground for a huge number of species The cause of benevolent legal action on plant succession Deforestation is the deliberate headroom of woodland by cutting, burning or the application of a defoliant * Climatic climax vegetation has been finished, this has resolutenessed in both secondary succession and plagioclimax * The vegetation that replaces the original rainforest tends to be smaller in big top and less divers(a), with a reduction in the general biomass Causes of deforestation * Demand for hardwood, e. g. teak, its direct for building and furniture is change magnitude * more developing countries rely on merchandise earnings from ti mber to help comport their debts and finance major development projects * To provide land for rubber plantations, oxen ranches for recoil estate, soya plantations, mining, roads and railways * Population compact has also led to an increase in the clearance of rainforests Impacts of deforestation * As habitats shrink, plant species render threaten and the food chain within the forest is disrupted * just about animal species are jeopardise by extinction The vegetation nurtures the latosol soils from the regular heavy tropical downpours * Once the trees are removed the topsoil is open to erosion and to leaching of nutrients and minerals * Runoff causes sediment to block river bring and increases flooding * The microclimate of the forest is disturbed by deforestation-the daily water cycle of rapid evapotranspiration followed by afternoon precipitation cannot occur, there is less cloud coer and a greater temperature range * The use of burning leads to local air pollution and c ontributes to climate change7 * Economic benefits in terms of income from mining, farming and exports from hardwood * Culture of the indigenous people is destroyed and they may be forced to move from their land People are one of the arresting factors that interfere with plants succession. They can practically stop a plant succession from growing and then when this is maintained it is cognize as a plagioclimax. Sheep grazing on moorland is an example. A secondary succession is a plant succession that takes place on land that has already been colonised.Secondary succession can follow a natural disaster such as a volcanic eruption or a period of human intervention such as colonising a former aim come out. Much of the British Isles was covered in deciduous woodland with the climax species being either oak tree or ash depending on the soil and the underlying parent rock. This was largely cleared for agriculture and declaration which has started a plagioclimax in most subject are as of Britain. equatorial Biome Savannah Grassland Climate * Wet and dry time of years * 500-1000mm of rain per year * Hot throughout the year * High pressure and knockout trade winds in the dry season * Wet season dominated by the ITCZ * Fires may occur caused by heat and lightning Vegetation Trees dominate over grasses where the wet season is longer dense rainforest towards the equator * Grasses may be up to 2m tall long roots * Deciduous * Adaptations include fire resistant bark, water storage etc. Soil * Deep red lateric soils * Influenced by climate * Silica is leached downwards in the wet season * novelty formed in the dry season Bio renewing * strikinger towards the equator * Acacia, Baobab, Umbrella Thorn, Elephant Grass * Great animal migrations occur meaning that biodiversity drops at certain quantify * 40% of the land in Tanzania has been designated as a matter commons to help conserve biodiversity * African Elephant, Black Rhino, Zebra and Cheetah are endanger ed The Savanna grassland biome ClimateThe tropical wet and dry climate of Africa shows seasonal variation in wind direction, precipitation and temperature Variations occur with change magnitude latitude from the equator Precipitation varies * Equatorial rainforest margins more than 1,000mm per year, rain season lasts 10-11months * scourge/semi-arid margins are less than 500mm per year, onward from the equator the dependableness of the rainwater decreases, only 1-2 months rainy season Temperature varies * The equatorial rainforest margin temperature range is 22C in the wet season and 28C in the dry season * On the de colossalate margins the temperature range from 18C in the wet season to 34C in the dry seasonDuring the dry season, the semitropic anticyclone moves over the desert margins, the subsiding air of the high pressure suppresses convection, giving rise to clear skies and high daytime temperatures The trade winds blow from the high pressure towards the ITCZ, moves towar ds the coast. The air has a low moisture content, known as harmatten In the wet season, the ITCZ migrates polewards, it brings rainfall because uplift and convection are fed by moist, unstable, tropical maritime air, the poles have a short rainy season so have low annual rainfall Ecological responses soil moisture budgets e. g. northern Ghana Soil moisture recharge-July to early August precipitation becomes greater than evapotranspiration, pelting fills the empty pores in the soil, reaches field capacitySoil moisture surplus- August-September, at field capacity, soil is saturated, pelting has voicelessy infiltrating ground leads to surface runoff, leads to high river levels Soil moisture utilisation-October, evapotranspiration begins to exceed precipitation, more water evaporating and being transpired by plants than go as rain Soil moisture deficit- December, when soil moisture is used up, water deficit, plants can only survive if drought resistant, period continues until pre cipitation becomes greater than evapotranspiration Yankee Ghana characteristics * lengthy period of moisture deficit * Short period of moisture surplus * Total annual potential evapotranspiration greater than total potential precipitationAdaptations by vegetation * Vegetation in clammy areas consist of tall coarse grasses, with umteen deciduous trees- Tree savanna * Shorter tuft grass becomes dominant in desert margins, accompanied by drought-resistant trees e. g. acacia and baobab, known as grassland and shrub savannas * Trees are deciduous, have hard leathery leaves to reduce transpiration losses, other plants are microphyllous (small leaves) for the same reason * In the tree savanna, isolated trees have low umbrella shaped crowns that shade root areas and reduce soil moisture evaporation xerophytic characteristics, adaptations to dry surroundings * dense electric cell fluids hard waxy leaves Reduce water loss * irritants and saved stomata cardinal main types of trees i). Ac acia-has a crown structure, often flattened by trade winds, loses leaves in the dry season ii). Baobab-thick spongy trunk, long exploit roots, baobab is pyrophytic, withstand fire due to insulating bark Grassland savanna- grasses are tussocky, enables them to retain some moisture shrub or wipe savanna- there are many another(prenominal) acacia trees, thorn bushes and short tufted grasses, fewer leaves so retain more water, turn blades away from sun to reduce water loss Impact of human activity Two main effects on the vegetation i).Grass is burnt off, better growth of young grass next season for grazing, regular burning makes it difficult for young trees and bushes to become primeed, dominated by herbaceous plants and indigenous woody plants that can survive fire e. g. acacia and baobab ii). Woody plants, killed by cattle eating their foliage, thorny animal-repellent trees and shrubs such as acacia, therefore become numerous The tropical monsoon forest biome Climate * High tempe ratures throughout the year, small annual range(19C-30C) because of the location within the tropics * Annual precipitation is high * Winds blow in from the ocean with very moist air and heavy rainfall during May-October, the rest of the year the air is drierEcological responses Soil moisture budgets * Precipitation is much higher(prenominal) than potential evapotranspiration during the wet season * High rainfall totals result in saturation of the soil, some of the moisture can be utilised by vegetation * A soil moisture deficits occurs by January, deciduous trees lose their leaves in response to drought conditions * The period of moisture deficit is shorter then that experienced in the tropical savanna biome * The months of surplus during the wet monsoon season result in the leaching of bases and silica and very little humus is allowed to develop in the top layers Adaptations by vegetation and animals The canopy is not continuous, tallest trees are smaller, provide an neither cover * This means there is less competition for light, allowing greater development of vegetation at lower levels * Fewer species of trees, common species are sal, pyinkado and teak all of which are economicalally valuable * Trees do not possess buttress roots and they develop large round crowns * The bark is often thick, to protect them from the harsh climate of the dry season, leaves are thin * Deciduous trees shed their leaves in response to a lack of moisture, to reduce transpiration during the dry season, this allows the light to reach the forest floor, leads to the development of dense underbrush Impact of human activity * Tropical monsoon forests are fragile ecosystems, following deforestation almost impossible for existing food webs to continue, all rophic levels are bear upon, results in commodious decrease in natural vegetation * Removal of monsoon forests due to increasing people pressure * Deforestation due to boorish land and fuel wood due to rapidly increasing commu nity * teak has been exploited for export to developed countries, many indigenous species are endangered Development issues in the three biomes Brazil has the superior species diversity, a smaller proportion of its land is protected than in Tanzania, in Tanzania 39. 6% of the land is designated National Parkland Species diversity is of crucial importance because * Plants photosynthesise * Trees act as a carbon sink * Some species purify water, fixing nitrogen, recycling nutrients and waste * Insects pollinate cropsIn all three biomes the natural environments are threatened by creation growth and economic development Ecosystem issues on a local scale preservation-preservation of the natural environment Ecology-the study of the relationships between living things and their environment Sustainable development-The vigilance of resources in such a way that the ability of the system to replace itself is greater than the level of exploitation In urban areas they contain a wide variety of habitats e. g. industrial lays, infirm land and pose- thus difficult to make generalisations about urban ecology- all these habitats contain different mixes of flora and faunaThis means there are opportunities for secondary succession, curiously where land becomes flea-bitten. Urban niches Many urban habitats are specialised, within one come out a number of different niches or microhabitats might be available for plants and animals to colonise. e. g. bare tarmac, stone walls, Mosses taking root on high buildings Colonisation of wasteland Plant succession-the change on a community of species over time, is brought about by changes in the microenvironment due to e. g. supply of new species, competition between species and changes in habitat The types of plants that can initially colonise are influenced by i). Slope- horizontal surfaces debris accumulates, eventually develops into soil ii).Moisture availability-gentle slopes, rainwater accumulates and steep slopes-faster runoff s iii). Aspect-south facing slopes are warmer and drier iv). Porosity-(ability to hold water), the greater porosity the quicker the colonisation v). go on roughness-allowing plants to get a hold vi). contaminant levels-substances that are toxic to plants e. g. lead, contaminates the ground Succession-e. g. industrial range arcdegree 1 Pioneers- * Mosses and lichens are the first plants to develop on bare surfaces * Able to exist in areas with little water, obtaining nutrients through photosynthesis * When the plants die they provide a thin mat of organic matter, produces a protosoil that other species can root into Stage 2 Oxford ragwort- Cracks in the surface provide sheltered places for seeds to germinate and retain moisture * Oxford ragwort, wind-blown seeds, has a long flowering season 180-190 days, enables it to produce millions of seeds * At this stage, succession is commonly rapid Stage 3 proud herbs- * As these plants die they produce a thicker and more nutrient-rich s oil * Taller plants that are more demanding of good growth conditions can become established e. g. Willowherb Stage 4 Grassland- * As soil enrichment continues, the amount of grass in the vegetation increases * Japanese knotweed, grow up to 3m in height, their dense canopies shade out most species beneath them Stage 5 Scrub woodland- Processes of soil enrichment and competition continues, taller herbaceous plants replaced by shrubs and eventually trees * As herbaceous plants thicken it becomes difficult for these small-seeded plants to establish As plant succession develops, there are changes to the fauna * Soil fauna-increase in number of earthworms as soil improves and increase in the number and diversity of the insect population * Sub-stratum variations-caused by differences in the temper of the surface being colonised Ecologies along driveway ways * Routeways are distinctive habitats because alien species of plants and insects may be brought in by traffic, provide wildlife co rridors for e. g. oxes * Railway lines- during days of steamer trains there were frequent fires which burnt of tall species (allowing light through) encouraging light-demanding species to establish * Windborne seeds can be sucked along by trains and a lack of human interference encourages wildlife e. g. badgers * The nitrogen-rich pulsate fumes boost the growth of some wild flowers and increase the presence of insects and animals further up the food chain * Canals act like long ponds providing a habitat for a variety of aquatic plants e. g. ducks basis of new species Cities are centres for the establishment and give out of foreign species, species * Europe-e. g. Sycamore * Japan-e. g. Japanese Knotweed such species can be introduced by windblown seeds, seeds carriers by animals and forms of transport e. g. trains Urban areas are fetching because of the variety of habitats, the constant creation of new habitats and the reduced level of competition Gardens and parks Are areas wher e the vegetation is managed * Species are introduced from oversea and others are removed or controlled by mowing, weeding or the use of pesticides/herbicides * Sports fields reduce the diversity of plant species by maintaining grass pitches * Altruistic motives- to give a dash urban area some colouration and improving the aesthetic value of the area * Improving the visual outlook-hiding eyesores (e. g. actories) encourage businesses or residents to move in * Schools produce a diverse environment for study purposes * local businesses may demand a gratifying site to reach customers * Local regime provide the public with an arboretum * Birdwatchers aspiration for a diverse environment to attract new species * Act as dissension and pollution inhibitors * Provide shade in hot urban environments * Reduce soil erosion on embankments Changes in the homespun urban bash * Although much of the land on the rural/urban fringe is a green belt area meaning that its protected from devel opment, there will be increasing pressure to do so as plans for 50,000 houses over the next few years. The rural urban fringe is under pressure from development, In the UK are designated green belt, with regulations that strictly control new development * Farmers face problems from sinful encampments, trespassing and vandalism * Secondary succession may begin on inadvertent fields with the growth of weeds * patronage a lack of investment, land prices are often high, due to speculation of emerging development, derelict land has an advantage in gaining planning permission * Recent governing indemnity is in favour of sustainable development of the rural-urban fringe and the recycling of derelict/degraded land e. g. planting of woodland * Country parks are relatively unmanaged and harbour more natural plant communities, providing potential do sites for bird species. e. g. feature Ecological preservation areas Conservation areas are developed for * Encouraging wildlife back into c ities * making cheap use of an otherwise derelict area Reducing maintenance cost in an area * Maintaining a diverse species base and reintroducing locally extinct species Such work includes * Planting of trees, planting of indwelling species, dredging of ponds and soil improvements * Group organisations behind such conservation include The National want Different groups have different priorities, local authorities have planning necessitate and have to balance the desire to make use of derelict land against the potential cost to local taxpayers E. g. conservation groups want to create environments where traditional species can establish and local people want a safety device environment for leisure Dulwich amphetamine Wood conservation area This was once a wooded area and the site of Crystal Palace however now it has been turned in to an ecological conservation area which is open and attempt to assuage everyone. * Is open at all times * Has a network of trails, some are suitable for wheelchairs Species in the wood * Trees e. g. Oak and ash, ground in the wood is profoundly shaded, only a few shrubs e. g. laurel and a few plants from the ancient woodland e. g. bluebell * Over 250 types of fungi e. g. mushrooms, they live on dead wood or leaf litter helping to break down these materials and return nutrients to the soil * Many mammals e. g. foxes and over 40 species of birds e. g. woodpeckers Why the site is interesting? Conservation of both cast out Victorian gardens and ancient woodland * A number of preserved and re-created habitats e. g. wet areas and herb gardens * The site is both managed and allowed to grow wild in some areas, a range of different habitats * Plenty of wildlife, over 40 species of birds * Original habitats preserved, enabling inwrought species of plants and animals to survive * A good example of how habitats can be preserved and created and nonoperational allow public access through a network of trails * The site has an educational value with a posted nature trail Ecosystem issues on a global scale Human activity, biodiversity and sustainability * Worlds population continues to grow, increasing the stress upon resources and environmental systems e. g. ater, land * Population and growth and economic development resulted in spiralling demand for natural resources and reduction in natural ecosystems and biodiversity * 2005, millennium Ecosystem Assessment- stated that humans have changed ecosystems extensively, resulting in a substantial loss of the diversity of life on Earth * 1/3 of plant species are threatened globally and that climate change could result in the extinction of up to 1 million of the worlds species by 2050 * United Nations and the World Wide strain for Nature are working to work people to protect ecosystems and to support sustainable development * 1997 Kyoto conference on the environment resulted in the most industrialised countries agreeing to cut their carbon dioxide emissions by 30% by 20 10 * UK government created the UK biodiversity Action Plan in 1994, setting aims for the next 20 years * Protecting the best sites for wildlife-10% of the UK designated Site of peculiar(prenominal) Scientific Interest (SSSIs) * Targeting action on priority species and habitats-2007 UK diversity Partnership produce list of 1,149 priority species and 65 habitats * Embedding favor of biodiversity and ecosystem services in all sections of policy * Encouraging people to change their behaviour, to environmental issues focussing of fragile environments A fragile environment lacks resilience to a change in conditions, many ecosystems are indefensible to change e. g. introduction of foreign species skid STUDY Central amazon Conservation Complex (tropical rainforests) The destruction of the Amazon rainforest has been particularly harmful to the biodiversity there. To prevent this some places have been protected by justice meaning that they are undisturbed.There are three separate rese rves which are united and is known as the Central Amazon Conservation Complex. The total size of these three areas is bigger than Switzerland. 1. Jau National Park 2,272,000 ha 2. Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve 260,000 ha 3. Amana Sustainable Development Reserve 2,230,000 ha This is a UNESCO world heritage site is the second largest protected area of tropical rainforest in the world. The area is sparsely populated and there are no transport links other than boats. There are no major projects such as hydroelectric dams and some incidences of pursuit and poaching by outsiders for commercial gain This area has one of the most diverse flora and fauna in the world.These include * 200+ species of mammals * 500+ species of birds e. g. parrots * 300+ species of slant * Reptiles and amphibians e. g. coral snake Some of these are endangered which means that the area requires limited protection. e. g. spider monkey and puma charge The counseling has three main functions * To pro tect the land and to minimise the impact of human activity * To research, catalogue and protect biodiversity * To manage specific activities, such as tourism They have drawn up a zoning plan which shows how much activity has been going on in each area. 1. Primitive partition Minimal human intervention as this is land of great natural beauty 2.Extensive usage zona There has been a small amount of activity 3. Intensive Use Zone Environment has been significantly altered due to human intervention 4. Special Use Zone where services operate to monitor lizard an protect the rainforest A management strategy was developed by local communities and with other representatives resulted in * Hunting and put down for commercial gain is prohibited * Inhabitants perk up environmental education and improved healthcare * Increased economic production from natural resources, ensure a sustainable future for those in the rainforest * Zoning and protection, resulted in an increase in the produ ctivity of the forest and aquatic resourcesCASE STUDY Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania (savanna grasslands) * The parkland occupies 2,305,100 ha, known for herds of wildebeest, 1,300,000 * imperil species, African elephant, perhaps only 2,000 left * More than 500 species of birds e. g. flamingo * Populated by the Masai mara, who have an extensive system of land management which requires large areas for the grazing of cattle and Maras cultural inscribe forbids the eating of wild animals, so biodiversity is protected History * Today over 52,000 Masai Mara * 1980s, economic situation improved, tourism change magnitude which allowed the park authorities to rebuild the foot and to re-establish anti-poaching units * 90,000 visitors a year, although tourism is managed sustainably-200,000 animals are passive smuggledly killed by poachers each year watchfulness Buffer zones called community Wildlife Management Areas * Local people are support and hav e legal rights to make decisions regarding the management of wildlife, hoping to curb illegal poaching * 36% of the population live below the pauperism line has resulted in ever increasing pressure on existing resources * A new threat to the natural grasslands is the invasion of the non- indispensable Mexican prickly poppy, rapidly takes over an overgrazed land crowding out native species * Tanzania is committed to protecting 42,000km? of land, UK has 1/10 of the land protected The main aim is to preserve the countrys rich natural heritage and to provide securing breeding grounds for its flora and fauna , safe from the conflicting interests of a growing human population The Sundarbans Reserved Forest, Bangladesh (tropical monsoon forest) Population pressure in Bangladesh is severe, large areas of the forest have been cleared to provide more space for agriculture and settlement e. g. 1000 hold up every km? Threats A number of risks threaten the Sundarbans * Climate change- sea leve ls are rising at 3mm a year, cause flooding of low lying delta land * Abstraction of water-40% reduction in flow leading to increased salinity of the land and water * Deforestation-e. g. in the Himalayas leading to greater volumes of silt being deposited by rivers * 3 million people live in small villages * Fishing camps are a major disturbance in the area, with some illegal hunting and trapping of species e. g. turtles * peeing pollution e. g. Khulna aquatic wildlife badly affected * Natural disasters e. g. 2007 a cyclone killed 3,000 people and most of the larger trees were uprooted Flora and faunaThe Sundarbans consists of a vast network of rivers, mudflats and islands which are vegetated by mangroves(salt tolerant trees), act as natural buffers against squeeze surges and protect the land from tropical cyclones which occur during the summer monsoon season Endangered predators in this eco-region e. g. Royal Bengal tiger estimated at 350 Management * There are seven conservation areas, including three wildlife sanctuaries * Under the wildlife act of 1974 it is illegal to cultivate the land within the conservation areas or to introduce domestic animals * There is not enough staff or structures in place to enforce the legality * The threats to the area require more crabby border cooperation with India as well as financial support * Plans must include a high degree of local community involvement to allow sustainable use of the forest